The terminal market of composite materials: pressure vessel field

The terminal market of composite materials: pressure vessel field

The terminal market of composite materials: pressure vessel field

Composite Pressure Vessels: Driven by Global Net-Zero Goals by 2050
The global goal of achieving zero emissions by 2050 is driving rapid growth in composite pressure vessels.
Figure 1: Composite Pressure Vessels
High-pressure gas storage vessels are among the largest and fastest-growing markets for advanced composites, particularly fiber-wound carbon fiber composites. While they are used in self-contained breathing apparatus and for storing oxygen and gases in aerospace vehicles, their primary end markets are the storage of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), compressed natural gas (CNG), renewable natural gas (RNG), and hydrogen (H₂). Although LPG cylinders are used in vehicles, demand in developing countries for cooking and heating is also growing.
Fuel systems using CNG, RNG, and H₂ are increasingly used in cars, buses, trucks, and other vehicles, or in bulk transportation for refueling stations (called "mobile pipelines") or industrial sites. In vehicle applications, these fuel storage tanks are critical components of clean, zero-emission powertrains that reduce or replace gasoline, diesel, and jet fuel. These systems also offer a charge-free alternative to battery-powered vehicles, with refueling infrastructure and time similar to fossil fuels.
Five Types of Pressure Vessels
- Type I: All-metal, typically steel.
- Type II: Mostly metal with some circumferential fiber winding, usually steel or aluminum combined with glass fiber composites, where metal and composites share structural loads roughly equally.
- Type III: Full composite wrapping over a metal liner, usually carbon fiber composites over an aluminum liner, with composites bearing structural loads.
- Type IV: All-composite structure, typically with a liner made of polyamide (PA) or high-density polyethylene (HDPE), wrapped in carbon fiber or a carbon/glass fiber hybrid, with composites bearing all structural loads.
- Type V: Linerless, all-composite structure.
Traditionally, Type I accounted for over 90% of the market, but this is changing as Type III and Type IV vessels gain traction due to weight reduction and improved compressed gas storage efficiency from composite materials. Type V is emerging, mainly for space applications—a promising area as the new space industry grows. For example, in April 2020, U.S.-based Infinite Composites Technologies (ICT) developed a spherical Type V cryogenic tank for storing cryogenic liquid propellants in rocket-powered space launch vehicles. This linerless carbon fiber/epoxy Cryosphere tank is manufactured using filament winding and industrial oven curing.
Market Drivers and Growth Rates
A key driver is the growing global commitment to shift from fossil fuels to renewable, low-emission fuels like CNG, RNG, and H₂ to reduce climate impact and achieve net-zero by 2050. According to the IEA’s report Net Zero by 2050: A Roadmap for the Global Energy Sector, even full implementation of current government climate commitments falls short of net-zero energy-related global CO₂ emissions by 2050, though it offers a chance to "limit global temperature rise to 1.5°C."
Notably, U.S. states including Connecticut, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, oregon, Rhode Island, Vermont, and Washington have pledged to end new fossil fuel passenger vehicle production by 2050. Along with California, Colorado, Hawaii, Maine, North Carolina, oregon, Pennsylvania, and the District of Columbia, they will ban sales of new fossil fuel medium- and heavy-duty vehicles by 2050.
Another growth sign: Cummins, which produces 130 million internal combustion engines (ICEs) annually (many for buses and medium/heavy trucks), has invested in an 8-class fuel cell truck and hydrogen-fueled engine. In June 2021, Cummins stated these products will approach the total cost of ownership (TCO) of a diesel engine by the end of the century, with future heavy transport powered by hydrogen, fuel cells, or batteries instead of diesel.
According to a 2021 Grand View Research report, 2020 global natural gas vehicle (NGV) sales exceeded projections: 29.8 million units sold vs. a forecast of 24.4 million. It projected 2021 sales at ~31 million, growing to 38.9 million by 2028, a 3.3% CAGR. DataIntelo reports Type I vessels account for ~55% of the CNG container market, with Types II, III, and IV at ~25%, 15%, and 5% respectively.
 Tony Roberts (AJR Consulting) and Dan Pichler (CarbConsult) predict carbon fiber demand for composite pressure vessels will rise from 13,100 tons in 2021 to 20,230 tons in 2026. Total carbon fiber demand is projected at 106,700 tons in 2021 vs. 169,000 tons in 2026. They estimate most pressure vessel carbon fiber will go to mobile pipelines (6,900 tons by 2026) and buses/trucks (6,400 tons by 2026).
Based on new global hydrogen vehicle launches, a 700bar, 5.6kg hydrogen tank (60% fiber) uses 62–72kg of carbon fiber. By 2030, hydrogen tank demand alone could reach 166,650 tons of carbon fiber—even with conservative vehicle projections (1% of heavy trucks, <10% of buses, <1% of cars using hydrogen).
Using Composites in Pressure Vessels
Type IV composite pressure vessels for hydrogen storage are made by winding carbon fiber over a plastic liner with epoxy resin. Suppliers of highly automated turnkey hydrogen tank production lines include the Netherlands’ Autonational Composites, U.S.-based Engineering Technology and McClean Anderson, Macedonia’s MIKROSAM, and Germany’s Roth Composite Machinery (which claims its Rothawin technology speeds production by 5–10x). MIKROSAM notes its client, Russia’s JSC DPO Plastik, operates the world’s largest production line for CNG and hydrogen tanks, winding 60,000 units annually.
Germany’s Cevotec says its Fiber Patch Placement (FPP) system for vessel domes saves 20% in material and cycle time. Cevotec’s CEO explains storing 1kg of hydrogen at 700bar requires ~10kg of carbon fiber—a high ratio. The FPP system precisely applies engineered carbon fiber patches to problematic areas during winding; one FPP system can reinforce vessels from multiple winders.
While most Type IV compressed gas vessels use carbon fiber for structural reinforcement and glass fiber for outer protection, Norway’s Umoe Advanced Composites (UAC) uses only glass fiber in its Type IV vessels. UAC supplies 200–350bar vessels for natural gas transport (not automotive) and will expand to 450–500bar in 2022. As UAC CEO Øyvind Hamre notes, glass fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRP) vessels match steel costs but are 70% lighter. While heavier than CFRP vessels, GFRP versions cut costs by 50%.
Figure 2
Type IV vessels made with glass fiber-reinforced composites are cheaper than carbon fiber composite versions and lighter than steel vessels. (Image source: Umoe Advanced Composites)
Hydrogen Tanks in Diverse Markets
Distribution is a key market for Norway’s Hexagon Purus and the Netherlands’ NPROXX (a former 50:50 joint venture between Cummins and U.S.-based Cimmaron Composites, now owned by South Korea’s Hanwha). In 2021, NPROXX announced a $130 million new production facility in Opelika, Alabama, U.S.
Hydrogen tank applications are growing beyond distribution to cars, trucks, rail, and maritime. "Some European-made trucks will use hydrogen power," says Michael Himmen, Managing Director and Head of Sales at NPROXX. EU regulations require truck OEMs to cut CO₂ emissions by 30% on average by 2030 vs. 2019 levels. Himmen suggests 5% of European trucks could be hydrogen-powered, needing 15,000–20,000 units annually. He expects ~2,000 hydrogen trucks to be built yearly from 2026–2027, with steady growth. With 5–7 Type IV tanks per truck, heavy-duty trucks could require 100,000 tanks/year in a decade, using ~6,000 tons of carbon fiber annually.
In rail, Alstom’s Coradia iLint hydrogen trains operate in Germany: 14 in Lower Saxony (since 2021) and 27 in the Rhine region (by 2022). They are also testing in Austria and the Netherlands. The two-car trains use 24 Type IV hydrogen tanks, housed in roof compartments with fuel cells. Hexagon Composites supplied tanks for the prototype, based on its 416mm-diameter, 3128mm-long heavy-duty tank (350bar, 300L/9kg H₂). NPROXX now supplies 500mm-diameter, 2200mm-long, 350bar tanks for iLint.
Figure 3 Alstom has sold 41 Coradia iLint hydrogen trains and is testing others. (Image source: Alstom)
Figure 4 French railway company SNCF has ordered 12 Alstom Coradia Polyvalent dual-mode regional trains (electric and hydrogen-powered).

Hydrogen-Powered Train Developments
Alstom is collaborating with the UK’s Eversholt Rail to convert electric trains into hydrogen-powered Breeze trains. (Image source: Alstom)
Other hydrogen-powered train developments include:
- Germany’s Siemens has developed the Mireo Plus H train, available in 2-car and 3-car configurations, set to undergo testing in several German regions between 2023 and 2024.
- Hexagon Purus is supplying Type IV hydrogen storage tanks for Spain’s Talgo, for use in the Vittal-One train, which will begin testing in 2023.
- Hexagon Purus will also provide storage tanks to Switzerland’s Stadler Rail for its first FLIRT train, manufactured and tested in Switzerland. This train is scheduled to enter service in San Bernardino, California (USA) in 2024.

Hydrogen Applications in Transportation and Storage Challenges
Railway
Siemens is developing the Mireo Plus H train for testing in 2023–2024. (Image source: Siemens)
Maritime Transport
In June 2021, Hexagon Purus announced the launch of a new subsidiary, Hexagon Purus Maritime. "We are now witnessing rapid growth in demand and initiatives for hydrogen in the maritime market," noted Jørn Helge Dahl, Director of Sales and Marketing at Hexagon Purus. "Given the harsh marine environments—such as corrosion—we believe composite materials offer an ideal solution for maritime hydrogen storage." Dahl expects accelerated project implementation in the maritime sector as 2030 approaches, driven by targets set by the International Maritime organization (IMO, London, UK): all new and existing ships must reduce CO₂ emissions by 40% by 2030 and 70% by 2050 compared to 2008 levels.
Aviation
Interest in hydrogen for aviation surged in 2020 when the French government provided relief funds to Airbus with a requirement to bring hydrogen-powered commercial aircraft to market by 2035. In summer 2020, Airbus unveiled its ZEROe project, featuring three aircraft models with the rear third of the fuselage dedicated to liquid hydrogen storage, requiring cryogenic control.
Another option for regional turboprop aircraft is the dual-tank module developed by U.S.-based Universal Hydrogen, which uses a CFRP frame. "We supply modules on demand, eliminating the need for on-site hydrogen storage facilities," explained J.P. Clarke, CTO of Universal Hydrogen. "These modules can be loaded onto aircraft as simply as batteries or kitchen supplies." In 2021, the company announced signed letters of intent with three regional airlines to retrofit existing turboprop aircraft with hydrogen-powered propulsion systems.
U.S.-based ZeroAvia announced in April 2021 that it is developing a 2MW hydrogen-electric propulsion system for 50-seat regional aircraft. The company secured $24.3 million in funding in 2021 to support commercialization by 2024 and entry into civil regional aircraft service by 2026.
Challenges in Hydrogen Storage
Type IV containers face significant challenges. Most notably, carbon fiber costs make these containers expensive. Another key issue is storage density: while compressed hydrogen delivers three times the energy per unit mass of gasoline, its energy per unit volume is much lower, requiring large containers to withstand the high pressures needed for adequate fuel storage. Storing hydrogen as a cryogenic liquid at -253°C yields higher density, and cryo-compressed (CCH₂) storage at -230°C and 300bar is reported to achieve 50% higher density than Type IV containers at 700bar. Cryogenic tanks are typically metal; composite-based cryogenic tanks, however, have not yet demonstrated the same performance and fatigue life as Type IV compressed gas containers, which have 25+ years of proven performance data.
Additionally, meeting demand targets for fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) and related infrastructure will require millions of hydrogen storage tanks, potentially straining carbon fiber supply. "Securing sufficient carbon fiber is a top concern," stated Himmen from NPROXX, a company that doubled its performance in fiscal 2020–2021 and aims to repeat this growth. "We’re not alone—Hexagon is growing at a similar rate. We need carbon fiber with specific quality, performance, and price points." Most Type IV containers currently use Toray’s T700 fiber (4900MPa tensile strength, 230GPa modulus) or equivalents. "Insufficient fiber strength requires more windings, thickening the container—an unacceptable outcome. Uncertainty about next year’s fiber supply could halt production."
Cost is another major challenge for Type IV containers. New manufacturers and leading French automotive suppliers Plastic Omnium and Faurecia aim to reduce Type IV hydrogen tank costs by 30%–75% by 2030 while improving storage efficiency by over 7%. To achieve this, new technologies are emerging: Germany’s Cevotec’s FPP technology for container domes (reducing CFRP winding time and costs), the UK’s Cygnet Texkimp’s 3D winding (minimizing fiber breakage), and Belgium’s Com&Sens’ in-situ container inspection (specializing in composite sensor integration).

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